Past Experiences with Natural Disasters in San Bernardino
The number of natural disasters in San Bernardino County is about four times greater than the national average. There have been 26 major disasters (president) declared in recent history, which have included (some incidents may be assigned to more than one category):
- 21 fires - 18 floods - 6 winter storms - 5 landslides
- 9 storms - 4 mudslides - 2 heavy rains - 1 earthquake
- 1 flashflood - 1 freeze - 1 hurricane - 1 snow storm
- 1 tornado - 1 tropical storm - 1 incident of strong winds
In fact, San Bernardino is 725% more likely to have an earthquake than the overall U.S. average. Though there has only been one earthquake disaster in the past two decades, the county’s history illustrates that massive earthquakes have occurred, causing much damage and loss. USA.com reports several disastrous earthquakes affecting the county:
The Hazards
In the hazard map provided in this project, San Bernardino, California, has the highest cumulative score for disasters at 24. The county currently has the following scores for potential disasters:
It can be seen that this county has high rankings, if not the highest, for multiple natural disasters. USA.com reported that the county has experienced a total of 1,270 “other weather extremes” events - which exclude earthquakes, volcanoes, and tornadoes - within 50 miles of San Bernardino County were recorded from 1950 to 2010. In fact, according to the United States Geological Survey, 21.1% of San Bernardino’s land area is at risk of wildfires, and there is an 89% chance that a 5.0 magnitude earthquake will hit the region in the next 50 years. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the county to have strong emergency preparedness and response in place to limit the amount of damage and loss that may occur during these natural disasters. .
County Demographics
The county of San Bernardino has had a growing and changing population, particularly in recent years since 2000. It is an entirely urban setting, with a total population of over 213,708 residents (as of 2013), which has grown more than 20% since 2000. The residents in this county have struggled with poverty. In 2013, approximately 34.4% of residents were living in poverty. The estimated median household income is $37,440 and the estimated per capita income is $14,314 (2013). About 14% of residents are unemployed. This indicates that government entities and other service providers, will want to seek emergency plans that will be low-resource for residents and/or that public and private actors will need to seek ways to equip residents with certain crucial tools.
San Bernardino has a very diverse population in regards to race, language, and religion. In 2013, the racial demographics were Hispanic (62.4%), White alone (16.6%), Black alone (13.4%), Asian alone (7% in 2015), Two or more races (1.8%), American Indian alone (0.4%), Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone (0.4%), and Other race alone (0.4%). In addition, in 2015 the county found that 22.2% of all residents are foreign born and that 41% of the county’s population speak a language other than English at home. Most of residents (82%) speak Spanish and 18% speak a language other than English or Spanish. This is crucial information for emergency preparedness and response teams to know to properly serve everyone in the San Bernardino community. This means that such teams should have interpreters to communicate with residents in different languages and have translated materials available to help people understand the natural disaster risks in the area. This information is also helpful to have because it can help emergency teams understand what previous experiences residents have had with natural disasters. A person who is newer to San Bernardino may have no experience with wildfires or earthquakes, and therefore may not know how to best respond if one occurs. On the other hand, someone else may have a lot of experience with floods, for example, but may have a lot of trauma from those experiences. Therefore, when delivering emergency preparedness to community members, trainers cannot assume levels of experience and should therefore teach information at different levels and be conscious of potential issues that may trigger people’s trauma.
Age is also important to examine in a location when looking at disasters. As of 2013, 28% of the county’s population was under age 18, while 10% were 65 years or older. This means that if a disaster occurs, emergency responders may prioritize their activities around schools in the area (many of which hold over 2,000 students each), since children at school are separated from family and may not have the knowledge or resources to help them seek safety during the disaster. The county also has 10 major nursing homes, which may host particularly vulnerable populations since some elderly residents may need special assistance due to health concerns, need for medications and certain equipment, and/or disabilities (for example, they have difficulty seeing or hearing the disaster or instructions on how to seek safety).
In terms of education, most school-aged children will be in school, though the county has a 12.2% student dropout rate. Overall, most adults in the area are not college-educated. Of adults over the age of 25, 66.6% have obtained an education of high school, 11.5% have a Bachelor's degree or higher, and 3.3% have Graduate or professional degrees. Furthermore, according to the most recent data available, in 2003 one out of five adults in San Bernardino was estimated to lack basic literacy skills. Therefore, not only should emergency materials be translated, as mentioned before, but the plan should be written - or perhaps orally explained - clearly to everyone.
Housing/Shelter
Residents’ shelter should be considered in disaster management in terms of where resident populations have higher density, areas that could have particular vulnerable populations, and locations that could serve as shelters in a crisis situation. The following group housing information (from 2010), could be helpful:
Prisons are a unique situation in that they are usually constructed with strong materials, usually to prevent inmates from getting out, but may prove to be strong against storms, for example. At the same time, though, if a prison is damaged, county residents may feel concerned about their safety if inmates have escaped, and it also means that those individuals do not have resources (material, financial, telecommunications, etc.) in order to survive extreme disasters such as flooding or volcanic activity. Another housing issues to highlight from this list are mental and psychiatric hospitals. In the 2015 San Bernardino report, it stated that “approximately 65,500 low-income residents of San Bernardino County were estimated to have a serious mental illness and needed mental health services in 2013/14,” and 46,211 residents are currently receiving mental health services. This means that emergency preparedness and response actors may need to find unique ways of educating these residents about disasters, while also being sensitive to residents who may have anxiety or trauma about these issues. It is important, again, for residents and service-providers to have emergency contacts for residents with mental health concerns, to have emergency plans/protocol in place, and to have clear understanding of who is responsible for whom or what. Lastly, it should be noted how many people in the county are already seeking emergency shelter. If all the main shelters are already at or over capacity, if a natural disaster occurs, the city needs to be ready to have additional shelter options.Prisons are a unique situation in that they are usually constructed with strong materials, usually to prevent inmates from getting out, but may prove to be strong against storms, for example. At the same time, though, if a prison is damaged, county residents may feel concerned about their safety if inmates have escaped, and it also means that those individuals do not have resources (material, financial, telecommunications, etc.) in order to survive extreme disasters such as flooding or volcanic activity. Another housing issues to highlight from this list are mental and psychiatric hospitals. In the 2015 San Bernardino report, it stated that “approximately 65,500 low-income residents of San Bernardino County were estimated to have a serious mental illness and needed mental health services in 2013/14,” and 46,211 residents are currently receiving mental health services. This means that emergency preparedness and response actors may need to find unique ways of educating these residents about disasters, while also being sensitive to residents who may have anxiety or trauma about these issues. It is important, again, for residents and service-providers to have emergency contacts for residents with mental health concerns, to have emergency plans/protocol in place, and to have clear understanding of who is responsible for whom or what. Lastly, it should be noted how many people in the county are already seeking emergency shelter. If all the main shelters are already at or over capacity, if a natural disaster occurs, the city needs to be ready to have additional shelter options.
While prisons and psychiatric facilities are not top options for shelters during crises, other facilities such as hospitals and schools may be converted to temporary shelter sites. Another possible shelter option is places of worship. In San Bernardino, residents’ religious identities are mainly “None” (60%), Catholic (22%), and Evangelical Protestant (12%). Total, there are approximately 1,227 congregations in the county. These facilities can become partners with emergency planners to offer services such as shelter or food. It is also important to note, though, that it is important to understand the people who practice a certain religion, or none at all, may not feel comfortable if shelter is only offered in another type of religious place. Those establishing shelters should be mindful of religious artifacts present in the shelter, as well as gender dynamics (for example, some residents may prefer shelters to divide men and women) and food preferences.
Livelihoods
Understanding economics and livelihoods of residents in a certain setting are additional factors that help plan for emergencies and to understand a county’s recovery process. For example, if a location is mainly agricultural and there is a flood or hurricane, for instance, many residents’ livelihood could be damaged and struggle economically for much time following the event. In the case of San Bernardino, though, most people work outside the county. Only 35.6% of workers live and work in San Bernardino, and most commute 25-minutes by car to their work. The most common industries residents work in are:
The good news about these sectors is that the area has human capital to respond to crises in that there are healthcare providers to address medical needs and skilled construction workers who can help rebuild infrastructure following natural disasters. It also means that if an emergency took place, for example a wildfire, many residents may be working elsewhere and not within the county limits to even experience, or be injured by, such a disaster. It does mean, though, that transportation infrastructure is very important. If an emergency happens in San Bernardino, residents’ livelihoods may likely be unharmed, but if roads are damaged, they will not be able to get to their workplace, which can have household economic impacts.
Infrastructure
Lastly, it is absolutely essential to see what infrastructure is currently in place, and what may be needed, to both prepare and respond to disasters. It can be examined what resources, capacities, and competencies are already present and can be leveraged in time of need. That information can also be used to see where residents are currently going to for help and which people, organizations, and processes they are familiar with.
There are approximately 400 full-time law enforcement employees (with 1.15 officers per 1,000 residents) and 141 firefighters in San Bernardino. There are eight main hospitals that can provide medical services to residents, 10 airports that could help evacuate people and/or deliver basic need items, and there are 25 fire-safe hotels/motels in the county which would potentially serve as shelters. There are also 315 grocery stores and numerous restaurants that could help provide food items as well. Other aspects to consider include bridges - in which there are 248 in the county which cause big logistical problems if damaged - and telecommunications. There are currently six TV stations in the area and approximately 36 strong radio stations, in which emergency alerts and updates can be provided to thousands of people to help keep them out of harm’s way.
Disaster preparedness considerations/recommendations
- The Office of Emergency Services (County OES) is a Division of the San Bernardino County Fire Department. County OES is responsible for disaster planning and emergency management coordination throughout the San Bernardino County Operational Area (OA) by functioning as the Lead Agency for the OA. County OES serves a county population of over 2 million and over 20,100 square miles. While County OES does not directly manage field operations, as does an Incident Command Post (ICP), it ensures coordination of disaster response and recovery efforts through day-to-day program management and during a disaster/emergency. (http://www.sbcfire.org/oes/ )
- Flood Area Safety Taskforce (FAST)
- Emergency Alert System (EAS) notifications for countywide distribution
- published this Ready, Set, Go! Personal Wildfire Action Plan (http://www.sbcfire.org/fire_prevention_advice.aspx - english)
- public outreach program is called the "Residential Assessment Program"(RAP). It is the goal of the RAP to provide citizens of San Bernardino County residing in the wildland urban interface areas with the most current information and the best methods available in an effort to protect homes and property from destructive wildfires.
- SB County website for natural diasters - preparedness materials: http://www.sbcounty.gov/dph/publichealth/ph_divisions/preparedness_response/natural_disasters.asp
Past Experiences with Natural Disasters in Charleston
There are multiple recorded disasters for Charleston County. First, tornadoes in this county have caused 17 injuries between 1950 and 2004, though none very recently. A category 3 tornado occurred in 1960 which injured 10 people and caused between $500,000 and $5,000,000 in damages, and another category F2 tornado in 1964 that injured two people and caused between $500 and $5000 in damages. Secondly, Charleston has, though, experienced several earthquakes:
Third, Charleston has had many severe storms including winter weather, tropical storms, and hurricanes. The county has experienced negative effects from three large hurricanes: Hurricane Katrina (2005), Hurricane Floyd (1999), and Hurricane Hugo (1989).The area also endured tropical Storm Frances and Storm Gaston, both in 2004. In addition, the county had a (presidential) Declared Major Disaster for a winter storm in 2000 and a drought in 1977.
The Hazards
The hazard map provided also indicates that Charleston, South Carolina, is also at risk for certain natural disasters. The county currently has the following scores for potential disasters:
County Demographics
Charleston, South Carolina, has a smaller population than San Bernardino, though still hosts 127,999 residents (2013), which has increased about 33% since 2000. It is also interesting to note that there are more females than males in the county: 46.3% of the population are male and 53.7% are female. While most service provision following emergencies is not based on gender identities, some aspects may need to account for different genders in terms of resources provided and program design. In crises, estimations can be made about displaced populations and the number of child-bearing aged females, which can mean certain nutritious food may need to be provided for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, for instance, or that certain amounts of sanitary pads should be distributed. Gender aspects can also influence how restrooms/latrines are divided, as well as allocating shelter space accordingly if communities prefer sexes are separated.
In this county, the majority of the residents racially identify as white, though other racial groups have a significant presence:
This differs from the San Bernardino case, where it was predominately Hispanic. In addition, 4% of county (5,195 residents) are foreign born and 94.4% of residents of Charleston speak English at home. This means that interpreters and translators still need to be available for Spanish-speakers, but will not require as many resources as San Bernardino, which has many different languages spoken. The issue of race and nationality is important, though, as different groups have different experiences in Charleston and may have different resources. This is illustrated by income levels in the county. For instance, the overall estimated median household income in 2013 was $54,970 (higher than state average), which has increased a lot in recent years, but varies greatly between white non-Hispanic householders averaging at $67,975 and black householders averaging at $25,192. The estimated per capita income in 2013 was $34,983 and the percentage of residents living in poverty in 2013 was 17.4%, though again not proportional to the racial demographics (10.1% for White Non-Hispanic residents, 28.6% for Black residents, 36.0% for Hispanic or Latino residents, 11.8% for American Indian residents, 36.9% for Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander residents, 26.9% for other race residents, 23.2% for two or more races residents). This not only has implications that different races may experience disasters differently, but also that emergency planners are encouraged to include racially diverse staff on their team to hopefully ensure marginalized voices do not go ignored.
In Charleston County, the median age is fairly young at 34.1 years, though many residents have obtained higher levels of education. Nearly all adults (94.5%) have high school education and higher. More than half of adults (51.8%) have a Bachelor’s degree or higher, and 21.1% of Charleston adults have a graduate or professional degree. This could mean that some residents may already be educated and trained on natural disasters and emergency response. It indicates that almost all residents are literate and can easily follow written instructions and signs for help. In addition, with such high rates of educational obtainment, the county could aim emergency and first aid trainings to school settings where many youth are.
Housing/Shelter
The housing arrangements in Charleston has most group housing arrangements involving university student housing, jails, and nursing homes but is unique in that the county is located on the ocean and therefore has more residents on military ships. The following are people in group quarters in Charleston in 2010:
Again, it is worth emphasizing that this county has more residents living on boats/vessels and along the ocean coast, which are areas particularly prone to hurricanes and floods. Therefore, since hurricanes are common in the area, emergency response teams may prioritize residents near the coast sooner, and thus, should also target emergency preparedness plans in these areas.
As previously mentioned, schools could also play a pivotal role in providing shelter following natural disasters. Charleston also has 432 congregations of various denominations that could possibly assist during crises (Evangelical Protestant 22.2%, Mainline Protestant 13.5%, Black Protestant 10.7%, Catholic 7.4%, and None 43.5%). Again emergency responders would need to be conscious and respectful of various religions and what individuals’ ideal conditions may be.
Livelihoods
In contrast to San Bernardino, it appears most Charleston residents work nearer to their homes and have about half the commute time (18 minutes) of those in San Bernardino. Unemployment is relatively compared to other U.S. counties at 6.6%, and residents tend to work in these main industries:
This means that assets and skills are available in regards to health care in times of disaster, which is beneficial to the community. When looking at food service, though, this has pros and cons. Such an industry can help support with food aid after disasters, but if local food businesses are impacted by the disaster, food spoils much quicker than other industries such as technical services. Furthermore, some of the food market may be linked to local agriculture and fishing, which means that supply may plummet following hurricanes, winter weather, and flooding and greatly negatively impact residents’ livelihoods.
Infrastructure
Charleston County harbours some essential infrastructure aspects and public goods. There are 11 hospitals in the county and thus more skilled medical professions who can help in crisis settings. There are six airports that could assist in logistical support of supplies and movement of people. There are 88 grocery stores to access food and 65 fire-safe hotels/motels in the county that could serve as potential shelters during disasters. In addition, there are 10 universities in the county that could provide shelter, good locations to disseminate emergency information, and help create more educated populations on emergencies and community development.
Past Experiences with Natural Disasters
Salem County has very limited tornado activity, with only 6 related injuries occurring between 1950 and 2004. On July 14, 1960 a category 2 tornado injured 6 people and caused between $50,000 and $500,000 in damages. The area experiences earthquakes very rarely, though a few are on record, mostly located a few dozen miles away from the county center:
The area mainly has a history of winter storms in the area. Such storms have been declared by FEMA recently in 2010, 2009, 2003, 1996, 1993. Salem also had declared emergencies for Hurricane Katrina (2005), Hurricane Floyd (1999), and a coastal storm in 1992 that caused high tides, heavy rains, and flooding.
The Hazards
From the data the “Is Your County at Risk” website used, there are several potential disasters in Salem, New Jersey. This county was found to have a cumulative score of 17:
These types of disasters differ from those experienced in San Bernardino and Charleston, specifically winter weather that may be more severe, but also because of a man-made risk: three nuclear power plants, which can have devastating effects on a county if a meltdown occurred. There is one General Electric Plant that was established in 1981, which has a pressurized water reactor (PWP) and has a net output of 1106 MWe. There is another similar nuclear plant with Westinghouse Electric Corp, started in 1977, that is also PWP with the same net output. The third is another General Electric plant, built in 1986 and located in Hope Creek, which has a Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) and a net output of 1031 MWe. Residents and emergency planners cannot necessarily prevent natural disasters like winter storms, hurricanes, and floods from occurring but humans can decide where to build nuclear plants. City planners in such cases will need to consider the surrounding human and animal populations and, if natural disasters pose a serious risk in the area, if it is safe to establish nuclear plants in the area and if additional safety precautions will need to be instilled.
County Demographics
Salem, New Jersey, has the smallest population of residents in these three case studies with 65,774 people (in 2012). Unlike the other counties, the population is not growing and has been stagnant. It hosts a slightly older population with a median age of 40 years. There are fewer children (proportionate to the total population) compared to Charleston and San Bernadino, which also means there are fewer schools in the county and the school that are present are smaller. There are also more women (53% of population) than men (47%), which called for potentially tailored emergency response as previously discussed. While Salem has a smaller population, relatively speaking, who may be at risk for disasters that does not mean they are all well-equipped or have access to resources in an emergency. Salem is a unique county in that it has fewer family households, has few public goods (i.e. public transportation, hospitals, schools), is mixed rural and urban, and is less racially diverse.
Salem is split between rural areas (45%) and urban areas (55%), which means that residents have different levels of access to resources and that they have generally different experiences living in this county. For example, the percentage of residents living in poverty in the county is 18.4%, but the amount of people disproportionately live in cities – in fact, those living in poverty in urban areas is 39.4%. Racial demographics also vary by rural and urban areas:
Furthermore, the amount of foreign-born residents in Salem County (2.5%) is much lower than the state average (17%). Of those who are foreign-born in Salem, most of them (55%) are naturalized U.S. citizens. Also, 93.7% of residents of Salem County speak English at home and 3.6% of residents speak Spanish at home. This information indicates that Salem County is more homogenous in terms of races and languages, and that where diversity is present is in urban areas.
In terms of educational obtainment, most residents over the age of 25 (79.4%) have a high school degree or higher and some (15.2%) have a bachelor’s degree or higher. There are not large higher educational facilities in Salem and currently there are approximately 2,436 students in college. This may be due to the fact the county has a higher median age. Also, if the area does not have such facilities, the areas will not attract more youthful populations. Overall, this means that there are fewer and smaller schools in which could serve as potential shelters. The average education levels, though, indicate a more literate population who could receive written materials on emergency preparedness.
Compared to the Charleston and especially San Bernardino case studies, fewer residents in Salem report practicing a certain religion. Currently 68.4% said they do not practice a religion. Others said they are Mainline Protestant (12.1% of Salem population), Catholic (10.5%), and Evangelical Protestant (6.2%). There are 96 congregations in the county. This implies that there are fewer places of worship that could be potential shelter sites and actors to help residents cope after a disaster. Therefore, emergency planners may seek other, more appropriate shelter sites.
Lastly, emergency planners can also tailor programs for residents with disabilities. In Salem County there are 1,313 people receiving Social Security Income (SSI), 1,180 of which are blind and disabled. While this is not a huge proportion of the total population of the city, city officials and emergency preparedness actors can consider disseminating information over radio or TV, and to possibly help form programs alongside caregivers.
Infrastructure
Not only are the demographics different between urban and rural areas, but infrastructure and resources vary as well. In rural areas people need to drive greater distance to get to work, for example. On average, residents in Salem drive 25 minutes to work and 84% of them drive their own cars, as public transportation does not have as great a presence. It is also important to note that in the city of Salem there are four hospitals and two small airports (each with one run way). This is important for residents and emergency planners to know because if people are injured during a disaster, they may be very difficult for either the people to get to hospitals or for ambulances to dispatch to rural areas in a timely manner. Furthermore, in the whole county of Salem, there are 18 grocery stores, 16 of which are in the city. This also indicates that people need to travel farther to obtain food. If a natural or nuclear disaster occurs and roads are blocked by debris, rural residents could have serious problems accessing food and other basic needs.
Housing/Shelter
What is unique about Salem County is that there are fewer family households compared to other counties. It is interesting because most residents (73%) are home-owners, yet the average household size is two people. Of 64,826 households, 10,368 are married couples with children, and 4,169 are single-parent households (861 men, 3,308 women). Smaller households may make the average household income of $61,943 seem deceptively low since there are fewer people contributing to the overall income. With more homeowners, emergency planners could reach out the residents to discuss weatherization techniques for their homes to help with instances such as winter storms and weather. This also relates to heating in homes. Currently, most residents in Salem (57.3%) use fuel oil or kerosene to heat their home, followed by utility gas (26.2%) and electricity (9.1%). Salem is at higher risk for winter weather so people will naturally need to heat their homes to stay healthy and safe, yet due to poverty rates the county will need to help residents find cost-efficient, yet safe, ways of doing so. Sometimes heating methods, as well as disasters, can lead to house fires. This has different effects in the urban versus rural settings in Salem, as rural conditions may have more isolated fire incidents and urban areas – with housing establishments in close proximity to each other – may spread fires quickly and cause more damage. Overall, county officials and emergency planners should consider types of housing, size of households, and incomes to help gauge possible vulnerabilities during times of crisis.
While most residents in Salem are in small-sized (owned) homes, people living in group quarters can still be examined:
When comparing these numbers to San Bernardino, for example, there are fewer people both in numbers and in proportion to the population size who are in prisons, psychiatric units, and universities. While it may be a positive indicator that there are fewer people in group housing for prisons, homeless shelters, and mental health facilities, this can also have implications for the dissemination of information. Group housing arrangements with higher population density can mean more people impacted in that area during a disaster, but group housing such as universities can offer great opportunities to distribute emergency preparedness information, training, and resources to better equip people before a crisis. Since Salem is divided between urban and rural areas, it means that information sharing is easier to take place in urban areas, but county officials and emergency planners will need to invest more time, money, and effort to reach more rural residents to help them prepare for disasters.
Livelihoods
As previously mentioned, most Salem residents drive their own car about 25 minutes to work. This is similar to San Bernardino in which it was explained that some disasters may therefore impact residential areas more than workplaces or vice versa. The most common industries in Salem are healthcare and social assistance, retail trade, educational services, manufacturing (specifically in the city). Unlike San Bernardino, this county is lacking healthcare services and construction, livelihoods that can be especially helpful during times of disaster. Perhaps local governance can help foster growth and development in these fields.
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